Eradicating child poverty in Britain: welfare reform and children since 1997

Over the past 20 years the incidence of relative poverty among Britain's children has tripled. These changes are related to increased earnings inequality, growth in the number of single (lone) parent households, and an increased share of households with children with no working adult. The Labour Government has responded by adopting as a policy objective ending child poverty by 2020. Initial steps toward this end include increasing direct financial support to families with children, creating financial incentives for work for parents, adopting more intensive case management for the welfare caseload, and ameliorating the long-term consequences of the deprivation poverty brings. The Working Families' Tax Credit (WFTC) is the centerpiece of the financial support innovations but there is a broader swathe of welfare reforms which has received less attention. Overall, the U.K. system provides more generous support to the lowest-income families than is available in the U.S., and recent reforms have directly reduced child poverty. For most households, the reforms have reduced marginal benefit deduction rates and increased incentives to work. Preliminary evidence suggests the changes have had greatest effect on single parents. Continued progress requires the adoption of a more specific procedure for defining and measuring child poverty.Welfare, inequality, in-work benefits, child poverty

Eradicating Child Poverty in Britain: Welfare Reform and Children Since 1997

In 1997 the new Labour government in the UK inherited a situation where nearly one in 5 children lived in a household where no adult worked and around one in 3 lived in relative poverty. Children had replaced pensioners as the poorest group in society. The incoming government set about an ambitious set of reforms designed to reduce poverty and worklessness amongst families with children. This policy reform agenda contained some features akin to the welfare reform process being undertaken in the US since 1996. But with one fundamental difference, that welfare payments to jobless families rose rapidly and there is no time restriction in access to these payments. This paper describes the key features of the welfare reform process and documents the reforms to welfare payments and in particular contrasts them with the US system. The results show that the reformed UK welfare support system, taxes and benefits, for children is more generous to low-income families with children but less for better off families. So the UK system is more progressive among families with children. The paper goes on to look at the emerging evidence of the impact of the UK policy reform process on poverty and welfare dependence.welfare reform, poverty, children

Growth and microclimate of Essex soybeans as affected by rowspacing

Essex variety of soybeans, [Glycine max, L. (Merr.)], were planted on Sequatchie loam, (fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic Humic Hapludult), in rowspacings of 25-, 38-, and 51-cm with or without a wheatstraw mulch in 1983, and 13-, 25-, 38-, 51-, and 76-cm with no mulch treatment in 1984 with irrigation being used both years. Micro climate, plant growth, and water use data were collected throughout the growing season. Canopy CO2 concentrations, ([CO2]), in the upper half of canopy were around 320 μL⋅L-1 at midday as compared to 340 μL⋅L-1 at a reference height, six meters above ground. At night, the [CO2] exceeded 500 μL⋅L-1. Lower [CO2] were observed in the narrow rows (13 and 25cm) at midday and higher levels were present for short periods after dusk. This was thought to be due to leaf density, which was higher in the upper strata of the narrower rows. In the narrower rows, no horizontal deviations in [CO2]]were observed. The [CO2] was 5 to 15 μL⋅L-1 lower between the row middles at midday than over the row of the 76cm treat-ment. Mulching had no effect on the [CO2]. Soil CO2 emissions among treatments were similar and averaged around 144 kg⋅ha-1⋅day-1 Soil temperatures across treatments were similar except during midday, (1500 to 1900 hour), where it was in excess of 32C in the row middle of the widest rowspacing. After mid-pod fill growth, rowspacing effects on soil temperatures were absent. Mulching cooled the top 5cm of soil two to five degrees at midday up to the pod-filling stage of growth, thereafter no differences were observed. Apparent evapotranspiration was significantly lower in the narrowest rowspacings at canopy closure. Prior to and after, there were no treatment effects. Values ranged from 0.50 to 0.70cm H2O⋅day-1. Rowspacing had no effect on average seed weights or seeds per pod. Total seed production per plant increased with rowspacing. Net assimilation rate and relative growth rate decreased proportionally with rowspacing and the leaf area ratio was constant across treatments. After early pod fill, the leaf area index across treatments was similar

Winter Concentration Areas of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Illinois: A Discriminant Analysis

Two discriminant models were derived from 40 variables measured in 12 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) winter concentration areas and 12 non-concentration areas in east-central Illinois. The first model correctly classified 100% of these areas based on area of refuge, area of upland hardwoods with \u3c50% crown closure, area of bottomland forest with \u3c50% crown closure, distance of unimproved roads, and total topographic relief. This model was tested on 6 winter concentration areas in west-central Illinois and 6 winter concentration areas in northern Illinois. The first discriminant model correctly classified 91.7% of these areas. The second model originated from the same set of variables, however the refuge area variable was removed in an attempt to classify winter concentration areas without knowledge of refuge areas. This model correctly classified 91.7% of sites in east-central Illinois, and 75% of the areas in west-central and northern Illinois. Refuge accounted for nearly 59% of the explained variation between winter concentration areas and non-concentration areas. This component of winter habitat was found in all winter concentration areas examined. These models offer land managers a statistical method of evaluating winter white-tailed deer habitat based on a low number of measurable variables. Winter habitat is presently adequate in Illinois. Changes in land use and/or harvest regulations may create a greater need to locate, preserve, or establish winter deer habitat

Soil heterogeneity in agricultural and natural ecosystems: relationships between anaerobic activity, organic matter, nutrients, and greenhouse gases

2017 Spring.Includes bibliographical references.Many soil biogeochemical processes are difficult to predict, in part, due to the spatial heterogeneity of physical, chemical, and biological components of soil. Understanding how heterogeneity forms and affects biogeochemical processes is important because of the ultimate impacts on nutrient availability, carbon storage, and climate change. Oxygen and soil organic matter are two key components of soil microbial habitat, so I performed research to determine how the heterogeneity of each affect ecosystem functions. Oxygen can be absent in soil aggregates, litter patches, rhizospheres, and the guts of soil fauna, and when this occurs in unsaturated soils with oxic pore air these areas are referred to as anoxic microsites. The formation, persistence and impact of anoxic microsites are poorly characterized because these microsites are difficult to measure, especially across large areas that define ecosystem level processes. I studied what factors cause them to form and persist and how they affect C and N cycling and GHG fluxes. I performed focused, mechanistic laboratory studies of natural and agricultural soils, as well as field-scale studies of anoxic microsite effects in agricultural systems. In multiple studies, I circumvented the limitations and problems related to measuring soil oxygen or reduction-oxidation (redox) potentials at sub-millimeter scales instead by using gross CH4 production as an indicator of anoxic microsite presence and activity. I used two relatively recent methodological approaches to make gross CH4 measurements, CH4 stable isotope pool dilution for laboratory measurements and a CH4 process and transport model for field studies. I found that methanogenesis correlated with respiration, soil moisture, plant presence, and agricultural practice both in laboratory and field studies, indicating that the distribution of anoxic microsites is altered by climatic and land use factors in ways that are similar to the large-scale anoxic zones of wetlands. Methanogenesis was associated with elevated NH4+ concentrations and N2O flux, but lower NO3- concentrations. These relationships are consistent with slower nitrification and greater denitrification, so measurements of methanogenesis may be a useful proxy for other anaerobic processes. I also found evidence that consistent upland methanogenesis may stimulate methanotrophy (i.e., gross CH4 consumption) over the course of years, counterintuitively leading to an increase in net CH4 uptake. Finally, redox potential was not as strong an indicator of methanogenesis as expected, so I join others in concluding that redox potential may not be a desirable method for quantifying anoxic microsites. I also studied the effects of the spatial distribution of soil organic matter in the form of litter patches in soil. In a laboratory incubation, I manipulated the size and number of litter patches and soil moisture in a uniform mineral soil matrix. I found that dry soils with litter that was aggregated into larger patches exhibited greater rates of decomposition and nutrient availability, but that in wetter soils there were few effects of litter distribution. This complements my studies of anoxic microsites by showing that not only the presence of soil microsites, but variation in their size and distribution can also alter soil processes. In summary, my dissertation research concentrated on the causes and biogeochemical consequences of anoxic microsites and heterogeneity of organic matter in agricultural and natural ecosystems. My findings have increased our understanding of soil heterogeneity and the potential for it to cause significant changes in nutrient availability, decomposition, and greenhouse gas fluxes

Winter Concentration Areas of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Illinois: A Discriminant Analysis

Two discriminant models were derived from 40 variables measured in 12 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) winter concentration areas and 12 non-concentration areas in east-central Illinois. The first model correctly classified 100% of these areas based on area of refuge, area of upland hardwoods with \u3c50% crown closure, area of bottomland forest with \u3c50% crown closure, distance of unimproved roads, and total topographic relief. This model was tested on 6 winter concentration areas in west-central Illinois and 6 winter concentration areas in northern Illinois. The first discriminant model correctly classified 91.7% of these areas. The second model originated from the same set of variables, however the refuge area variable was removed in an attempt to classify winter concentration areas without knowledge of refuge areas. This model correctly classified 91.7% of sites in east-central Illinois, and 75% of the areas in west-central and northern Illinois. Refuge accounted for nearly 59% of the explained variation between winter concentration areas and non-concentration areas. This component of winter habitat was found in all winter concentration areas examined. These models offer land managers a statistical method of evaluating winter white-tailed deer habitat based on a low number of measurable variables. Winter habitat is presently adequate in Illinois. Changes in land use and/or harvest regulations may create a greater need to locate, preserve, or establish winter deer habitat

Critical issues in the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture models

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to clarify critical issues underlying the national culture dimensions of Hofstede and GLOBE, demonstrating their irrelevance to international marketing decision-making. Design/methodology/approach: In-depth discussion of the theoretical and empirical logic underlying the national culture dimension scales and scores. Findings: Hofstede and GLOBE national culture scores are averages of items that are unrelated and which do not form a valid and reliable scale for the culture dimensions at the level of individuals or organizations. Hence these scores cannot be used to characterize individuals or sub-groups within countries. The national culture dimension scores are therefore of doubtful use for marketing management that is concerned with individual-and segment-level consumer behavior. Research limitations/implications: Researchers should be cautious in using the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture dimension scores for analysis at the level of individuals and organizations. Practical implications: Hofstede and GLOBE dimension scores should not be used to infer individual/managerial and group/organizational level behavior and preferences. Originality/value: The paper follows a recent paper in IMR which was the first to discuss the common misunderstanding of the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture scales and scores, and their misapplication at the level of individuals and organizations by scholars and practitioners. Here we further expand and clarify the issues

On the misuse of national culture dimensions

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to highlight the ongoing misapplication of the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture dimensions at the individual level of analysis in both research and teaching. It provides suggestions as to how these national level constructs might be used in analysis and the challenges such use presents to researchers. Design/methodology/approach: The methodology used by Hofstede and GLOBE in their calculation of national culture dimensions is discussed together with the implications. Findings: The consequences of the national nature of the Hofstede and GLOBE national culture dimensions are that the dimensions do not exist at the individual level. The paper explains why, in spite of this, the dimensions continue to be misapplied to individuals. Practical implications: There are important implications for practitioners. The cultural assumptions often made about individuals in different countries based on the Hofstede and GLOBE dimension scores are invalid. Practitioners should not use national culture dimension scores in individual-level culture related decision making. Originality/value: The paper is the first that is focused on the invalid projection of national culture dimensions onto individuals and which highlights the origins and the ongoing nature of this problem